(-__-")

INTERNET CONNECTION :D

salamat sa aking mabait na pinsan at hindi pa niya pinapatay ang internet connection nila!!!!

Chapter 3 : Lesson 3

The title for lesson 3 in chapter 3 is PC care and safety procedures for users, well as the title says, it teaches us, students, how to take care of computers. We will also learn the different factors that can affect the efficiency of the computer and the health risks it can give to the users.
We can consider computers are sensitive equipments that can be damaged by different factors. They can also cause health hazards to users if not treated properly.

walang ma post xD

PROUD TO BE :)

UST: We accept WISE students only.
FEU: We accept GREAT students only.
DLSU: We accept COMPETITIVE students only.
ADMU: We accept INTELLIGENT students only.
UP: We accept GENIUS students only.
...
RSHS: WE DON'T NEED TO ACCEPT WISE, GREAT, COMPETITIVE, INTELLIGENT, GENIUS STUDENTS. WE CREATE THEM!

GAWIN MO 'TONG STATUS MO KUNG PROUD KANG TAGA REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

Angry Birds: The Movie (Trailer)

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different types ofcomputer (late na nagpost )

A computer is one of the most brilliant inventions of mankind. Thanks to the computer technology, we were able to achieve an efficient storage and processing of data; we could rest our brains by employing computer memory capacities for storage of the information. Owing to computers, we have been able speed up daily work, carry out critical transactions and achieve accuracy and precision in work output. The computers of the earlier years were of the size of a large room and were required to consume huge amounts of electric power. However, with the advancing technology, computers have shrunk to the size of a small watch. Depending on the processing powers and sizes of computers, they have been classified under various types. Let us look at the classification of computers.

Different types of Computers

Based on the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as analog computers and hybrid computers.

Analog Computers: These are almost extinct today. These are different from a digital computer because an analog computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical energy.

Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of both digital and analog computers. In this type of computers, the digital segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals to digital ones.

Following are some of the other important types of computers.

Mainframe Computers: Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical applications such as bulk data processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have the capacities to host multiple operating systems and operate as a number of virtual machines and can thus substitute for several small servers.

Microcomputers: A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as a microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes. When supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called as personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input output devices, computer memory in the form of RAM and a power supply unit come packaged in a microcomputer. These computers can fit on desks or tables and serve as the best choices for single-user tasks.

Personal computers come in a variety of forms such as desktops, laptops and personal digital assistants. Let us look at each of these types of computers.

Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of a desktop computer are readily available at relative lower costs. Power consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for daily use in workplaces and households.

Laptops: Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Its portability and capacity to operate on battery power have served as a boon for mobile users.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be effectively used as portable audio players, web browsers and smart phones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.

Minicomputers: In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in between mainframes and microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-range systems or workstations. The term began to be popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller third generation computers. They took up the space that would be needed for a refrigerator or two and used transistor and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer of the Digital Equipment Corporation was the first successful minicomputer.

Supercomputers: The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by means of supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather forecasting, molecular theory are best studied by means of supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and their well-designed memory hierarchy give the supercomputers, large transaction processing powers.
Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation of wearable computers. These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study of behavior modeling and human health. Military and health professionals have incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When the users’ hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable computers are of great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers are consistently in operation as they do not have to be turned on and off and are constantly interacting with the user.

These were some of the different types of computers available today. Looking at the rate of the advancement in technology, we can definitely look forward to many more types of computers in the near future.

THE 3 IDIOTS PART THREE :))

Rancho is calling someone because there is an emergency.He saw a girl with a motorcycle,he borrow the motorcycle with the girl. They go to a house and brought a sick person into the hospital with the motorcycle. In the hospital his one friend saw his father and because of that he thanked Rancho.the girl fell in love with Rancho and she think that all the characters in the television is Rancho and she think that she is dancing with him. on that morning she go to the hospital and she saw that the three were sleeping so she wake up them because they have an exam. when they go to their exam they were 30 min. late but they take the test. their teacher did not accept their test so when their teacher is arranging the test papers they rumble the test papers and put their test papers to others. After that they went to see the results Rancho's two friends was in the 2 last positions. they taught that Rancho did not pass the test. but the girl saw that Rancho is the top notcher. After that they drink too much alcohols. After many days, the two go to Rancho's house. They saw Rancho's father that is dead. They try to speak with him but they saw different face. They asked him where is their friend but he get his rifle, so they get his father's urn and they said to him that they will flush the ashes in the toilet. So he tell the truth that he is a true Rancho and the one their friend is their gardener. When the fake Rancho is in the 6th grade the true Rancho always gives his assignment to him for him to answer. When the math teacher saw the fake Rancho solving a 10th grade math, he was to say it to the principle but the true Rancho's father said that he said that he is his son Rancho so he study until college as Rancho
So the true Rancho give the address of the fake Rancho. When the two was on their way to the fake Rancho's house the true Rancho saw that the urn do not have ashes. He was tricked by the two. The last part I have watch is they are drinking and they are having fun

Computer History
Year/Enter Computer History
Inventors/Inventions Computer History
Description of Event
1936
Konrad Zuse - Z1 Computer First freely programmable computer.
1942
John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry
ABC Computer Who was first in the computing biz is not always as easy as ABC.
1944
Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper
Harvard Mark I Computer The Harvard Mark 1 computer.
1946
John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly
ENIAC 1 Computer 20,000 vacuum tubes later...
1948
Frederic Williams & Tom Kilburn
Manchester Baby Computer & The Williams Tube Baby and the Williams Tube turn on the memories.
1947/48
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain & Wiliam Shockley
The Transistor No, a transistor is not a computer, but this invention greatly affected the history of computers.
1951
John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly
UNIVAC Computer First commercial computer & able to pick presidential winners.
1953
International Business Machines
IBM 701 EDPM Computer IBM enters into 'The History of Computers'.
1954
John Backus & IBM
FORTRAN Computer Programming Language The first successful high level programming language.
1955
(In Use 1959)

Stanford Research Institute, Bank of America, and General Electric
ERMA and MICR The first bank industry computer - also MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) for reading checks.
1958
Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce
The Integrated Circuit Otherwise known as 'The Chip'
1962
Steve Russell & MIT
Spacewar Computer Game The first computer game invented.
1964
Douglas Engelbart
Computer Mouse & Windows Nicknamed the mouse because the tail came out the end.
1969
ARPAnet The original Internet.
1970
Intel 1103 Computer Memory The world's first available dynamic RAM chip.
1971
Faggin, Hoff & Mazor
Intel 4004 Computer Microprocessor The first microprocessor.
1971
Alan Shugart &IBM
The "Floppy" Disk Nicknamed the "Floppy" for its flexibility.
1973
Robert Metcalfe & Xerox
The Ethernet Computer Networking Networking.
1974/75
Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair & IBM 5100 Computers The first consumer computers.
1976/77
Apple I, II & TRS-80 & Commodore Pet Computers More first consumer computers.
1978
Dan Bricklin & Bob Frankston
VisiCalc Spreadsheet Software Any product that pays for itself in two weeks is a surefire winner.
1979
Seymour Rubenstein & Rob Barnaby
WordStar Software Word Processors.
1981
IBM
The IBM PC - Home Computer From an "Acorn" grows a personal computer revolution
1981
Microsoft
MS-DOS Computer Operating System From "Quick And Dirty" comes the operating system of the century.
1983
Apple Lisa Computer The first home computer with a GUI, graphical user interface.
1984
Apple Macintosh Computer The more affordable home computer with a GUI.
1985
Microsoft Windows Microsoft begins the friendly war with Apple.

History of Computers

The development of the modern day computer was the result of advances in technologies and man's need to quantify. Papyrus helped early man to record language and numbers. The abacus was one of the first counting machines..
Some of the earlier mechanical counting machines lacked the technology to make the design work. For instance, some had parts made of wood prior to metal manipulation and manufacturing. Imagine the wear on wooden gears. This history of computers site includes the names of early pioneers of math and computing and links to related sites about the History of Computers, for further study. This site would be a good Web adjunct to accompany any book on the History of Computers or Introduction to Computers. The "H" Section includes a link to the History of the Web Beginning at CERN which includes Bibliography and Related Links. Hitmill.com strives to always include related links for a broader educational experience.

ADA
Ada was a US governmental (DoD) developed programming language. The standard was originally known as Ada83, but this is now obsolete, as it was recently "overhauled" and re-born as Ada95. This is now the preferred standard and implementation of the Ada programming language.

BABBAGE, CHARLES
Charles Babbage (1791-1871 was born 26 Dec 1791, the son of a London banker. In his youth he had his own private instructor in algebra and by the time he attended Trinity College, Cambridge, he was advanced in knowledge beyond his tutors in mathematics. In 1811, he co-founded the Analytical Society to promote continental mathematics and to reform the mathematics of Newton taught at the University at that time. He worked on the calculus of functions in his twenties. After being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816, Babbage played a role in the development of the Astronomical Society in 1820. In 1821 he invented the Difference Engine to compile mathematical tables. The Difference Engine was completed in 1832. Then he began work on a machine that could do any type of calculation, and this machine was the Analytical Engine completed about 1856. To learn more about Charles Babbage and his contributions to society, mathetics, engineering, astronomy, and more....

CERF, VINTON G. Co-inventor of TCP/IP Protocol for the Internet

CODD, EDGAR F. Database Pioneer, Key Theorist of Databases

COMPUTERS! :D

A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem.
Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from an external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent out.
A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.
The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1]
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.


The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century onwards, the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, describing a machine that carries out computations.[3]
Limited-function early computers


The Jacquard loom, on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester, England, was one of the first programmable devices.
The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies—automated calculation and programmability—but no single device can be identified as the earliest computer, partly because of the inconsistent application of that term. A few devices are worth mentioning though, like some mechanical aids to computing, which were very successful and survived for centuries until the advent of the electronic calculator, like the Sumerian abacus, designed around 2500 BC[4] which descendant won a speed competition against a modern desk calculating machine in Japan in 1946,[5] the slide rules, invented in the 1620s, which were carried on five Apollo space missions, including to the moon[6] and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism, an ancient astronomical computer built by the Greeks around 80 BC.[7] The Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when.[8] This is the essence of programmability.
Around the end of the tenth century, the French monk Gerbert d'Aurillac brought back from Spain the drawings of a machine invented by the Moors that answered Yes or No to the questions it was asked (binary arithmetic).[9] Again in the thirteenth century, the monks Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon built talking androids without any further development (Albertus Magnus complained that he had wasted forty years of his life when Thomas Aquinas, terrified by his machine, destroyed it).[10]
In 1642, the Renaissance saw the invention of the mechanical calculator,[11] a device that could perform all four arithmetic operations without relying on human intelligence.[12] The mechanical calculator was at the root of the development of computers in two separate ways ; initially, it is in trying to develop more powerful and more flexible calculators[13] that the computer was first theorized by Charles Babbage[14][15] and then developed,[16] leading to the development of mainframe computers in the 1960s, but also the microprocessor, which started the personal computer revolution, and which is now at the heart of all computer systems regardless of size or purpose,[17] was invented serendipitously by Intel[18] during the development of an electronic calculator, a direct descendant to the mechanical calculator.[19]
First general-purpose computers
In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.


The Most Famous Image in the Early History of Computing[20]

This portrait of Jacquard was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and required 24,000 punched cards to create (1839). It was only produced to order. Charles Babbage owned one of these portraits ; it inspired him in using perforated cards in his analytical engine[21]
It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer, his analytical engine.[22] Limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed ; nevertheless his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to the Science museum in South Kensington in 1910.
In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine readable medium. Prior uses of machine readable media, above, had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards ..."[23] To process these punched cards he invented the tabulator, and the keypunch machines. These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890 United States Census by Hollerith's company, which later became the core of IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of ideas and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers, had begun to appear: Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve), punched cards and tape, and the teleprinter.
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.
Alan Turing is widely regarded to be the father of modern computer science. In 1936 Turing provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer.[24] Of his role in the creation of the modern computer, Time magazine in naming Turing one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, states: "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine".[24]


The Zuse Z3, 1941, considered the world's first working programmable, fully automatic computing machine.


The ENIAC, which became operational in 1946, is considered to be the first general-purpose electronic computer.


EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (von Neumann) architecture.


Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging.
The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) was among the first electronic digital binary computing devices. Conceived in 1937 by Iowa State College physics professor John Atanasoff, and built with the assistance of graduate student Clifford Berry,[25] the machine was not programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear equations. The computer did employ parallel computation. A 1973 court ruling in a patent dispute found that the patent for the 1946 ENIAC computer derived from the Atanasoff–Berry Computer.
The inventor of the program-controlled computer was Konrad Zuse, who built the first working computer in 1941 and later in 1955 the first computer based on magnetic storage.[26]
George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While working at Bell Labs in November 1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation. Later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability.[27]
A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult.Shannon 1940 Notable achievements include.
Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer.[28]
The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (commenced in 1937, completed in 1941) which used vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory. The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much more compact than its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then fed back into the same set of computation elements.
The secret British Colossus computers (1943),[29] which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.[30]
The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.
Stored-program architecture
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first working prototype to be demonstrated was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby") in 1948. The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM at Cambridge University, was the first practical, non-experimental implementation of the stored program design and was put to use immediately for research work at the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.
Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.
Beginning in the 1950s, Soviet scientists Sergei Sobolev and Nikolay Brusentsov conducted research on ternary computers, devices that operated on a base three numbering system of −1, 0, and 1 rather than the conventional binary numbering system upon which most computers are based. They designed the Setun, a functional ternary computer, at Moscow State University. The device was put into limited production in the Soviet Union, but supplanted by the more common binary architecture.
Semiconductors and microprocessors
Computers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s had been largely replaced by transistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, required less power, and were more reliable. The first transistorised computer was demonstrated at the University of Manchester in 1953.[31] In the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the late 1970s, many products such as video recorders contained dedicated computers called microcontrollers, and they started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The 1980s witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household[citation needed].
Modern smartphones are fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the most common form of such computers in existence[citation needed].
Programs

The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will carry process them. While some computers may have strange concepts "instructions" and "output" (see quantum computing), modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language.
In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
Stored program architecture
Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming


A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.
This section applies to most common RAM machine-based computers.
In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time—with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:
mov #0, sum ; set sum to 0
mov #1, num ; set num to 1
loop: add num, sum ; add num to sum
add #1, num ; add 1 to num
cmp num, #1000 ; compare num to 1000
ble loop ; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
halt ; end of program. stop running
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a second.[32]
Bugs
Main article: software bug


The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the Harvard Mark II computer
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". Bugs may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases they may cause the program - or the entire system - to "hang"—become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, or to completely fail or "crash". Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an "exploit"—code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.[33]
Rear Admiral Grace Hopper is credited for having first used the term 'bugs' in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay of the Harvard Mark II computer in September 1947.[34]
Machine code
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode, the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from—each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers,[35] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember—a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a PDA or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an Intel Pentium or the AMD Athlon 64 computer that might be in a PC.[36]
Higher-level languages and program design
Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler.[37] High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Function

Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Control unit
Main articles: CPU design and Control unit


Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system.
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer.[38] Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.[39]
The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program—and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
Main article: Arithmetic logic unit
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.[40]
The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc.) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").
Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time.[41] Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
Memory
Main article: Computer data storage


Magnetic core memory was the computer memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor memory.
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.[42]
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.
Input/output (I/O)
Main article: Input/output


Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.
I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.[43] Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.[44] On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.
Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics[citation needed]. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.
Multitasking
Main article: Computer multitasking
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.[45]
One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.[46]
Before the era of cheap computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.
Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly — in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss.
Multiprocessing
Main article: Multiprocessing


Cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.[47] They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.
Networking and the Internet
Main articles: Computer networking and Internet


Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.[48]
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET.[49] The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
Misconceptions

A computer does not need to be electric, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even hard disk. The minimal definition of a computer is anything that transforms information in a purposeful way.[citation needed] However the traditional definition of a computer is a device having memory, mass storage, processor (CPU), and Input & Output devices.[50] Anything less would be a simple processor.
Required technology
Main article: Unconventional computing
Computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); this is an unintuitive and pedagogical example that a computer can be made out of almost anything. More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.
Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computing, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Some of these can easily tackle problems that modern computers cannot (such as how quantum computers can break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring).
Computer architecture paradigms
Some different paradigms of how to build a computer from the ground-up:
RAM machines
These are the types of computers with a CPU, computer memory, etc., which understand basic instructions in a machine language. The concept evolved from the Turing machine.
Brains
Brains are massively parallel processors made of neurons, wired in intricate patterns, that communicate via electricity and neurotransmitter chemicals.
Programming languages
Such as the lambda calculus, or modern programming languages, are virtual computers built on top of other computers.
Cellular automata
For example, the game of Life can create "gliders" and "loops" and other constructs that transmit information; this paradigm can be applied to DNA computing, chemical computing, etc.
Groups and committees
The linking of multiple computers (brains) is itself a computer
Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing-complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
Limited-function computers
Conversely, a computer which is limited in function (one that is not "Turing-complete") cannot simulate arbitrary things. For example, simple four-function calculators cannot simulate a real computer without human intervention. As a more complicated example, without the ability to program a gaming console, it can never accomplish what a programmable calculator from the 1990s could (given enough time); the system as a whole is not Turing-complete, even though it contains a Turing-complete component (the microprocessor). Living organisms (the body, not the brain) are also limited-function computers designed to make copies of themselves; they cannot be reprogrammed without genetic engineering.
Virtual computers
A "computer" is commonly considered to be a physical device. However, one can create a computer program which describes how to run a different computer, i.e. "simulating a computer in a computer". Not only is this a constructive proof of the Church-Turing thesis, but is also extremely common in all modern computers. For example, some programming languages use something called an interpreter, which is a simulated computer built on top of the basic computer; this allows programmers to write code (computer input) in a different language than the one understood by the base computer (the alternative is to use a compiler). Additionally, virtual machines are simulated computers which virtually replicate a physical computer in software, and are very commonly used by IT. Virtual machines are also a common technique used to create emulators, such game console emulators.
Further topics

Glossary of computers
Artificial intelligence
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way they are programmed to, without regard to efficiency nor alternative solutions nor possible shortcuts nor possible errors in the code. Computer programs which learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
Hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.
History of computing hardware
First Generation (Mechanical/Electromechanical) Calculators Antikythera mechanism, Difference engine, Norden bombsight
Programmable Devices Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation (Vacuum Tubes) Calculators Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120
Programmable Devices Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22
Third Generation (Discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI Integrated circuits) Mainframes IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH
Minicomputer PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36
Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated circuits) Minicomputer VAX, IBM System i
4-bit microcomputer Intel 4004, Intel 4040
8-bit microcomputer Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
16-bit microcomputer Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
32-bit microcomputer Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture
64-bit microcomputer[51] Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64
Embedded computer Intel 8048, Intel 8051
Personal computer Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet PC, Wearable computer
Theoretical/experimental Quantum computer, Chemical computer, DNA computing, Optical computer, Spintronics based computer
Other Hardware Topics
Peripheral device (Input/output) Input Mouse, Keyboard, Joystick, Image scanner, Webcam, Graphics tablet, Microphone
Output Monitor, Printer, Loudspeaker
Both Floppy disk drive, Hard disk drive, Optical disc drive, Teleprinter
Computer busses Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB
Long range (Computer networking) Ethernet, ATM, FDDI
Software
Main article: Computer software
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.
Computer software
Operating system Unix and BSD UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems
GNU/Linux List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
Microsoft Windows Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7
DOS 86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS
Mac OS Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
Embedded and real-time List of embedded operating systems
Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Programming library C standard library, Standard Template Library
Data Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface Graphical user interface (WIMP) Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua
Text-based user interface Command-line interface, Text user interface
Application Office suite Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
Internet Access Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
Design and manufacturing Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management
Graphics Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing
Audio Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
Software engineering Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated development environment, Software performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
Educational Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
Games Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction
Misc Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager
Programming languages
Main article: Programming language
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
Programming languages
Lists of programming languages Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by category, Generational list of programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages
Commonly used Assembly languages ARM, MIPS, x86
Commonly used high-level programming languages Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal
Commonly used Scripting languages Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
Professions and organizations
As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
Computer-related professions
Hardware-related Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoengineering
Software-related Computer science, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information technology, Information systems, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game industry, Web design
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
Organizations
Standards groups ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C
Professional Societies ACM, AIS, IET, IFIP, BCS
Free/Open source software groups Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation

Computer History - A British View - Part 3 of 3

Computer History - A British View - Part 2 of 3

Computer History - A British View - Part 1 of 3

hindi mahirap ung a ict xD

Lady Gaga Paparazzi REVERSED LYRICS REVEALED

THIS FRIDAY AFTERNOON IS SO E-P-I-C

hwoooh!!!! ANG SAYA PALA MAGLARO NG BADMINTON!!!! LALONA KUNG MARUNONG KANAAAAAAAAAAAAA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! EPIC DAY EVER!!!! NAKAKALUNGKOT NGA LANG AT HINDI NA SI SIR PRUDZ ANG AMING EARTH SCIE NGAYUN.. SI MAM JOVELYN AREVALO NAMAN :DD

Environmental scanning & Monitoring Techniques

View more presentations from Rex Mannoor

ANG AKING POWERPOINT STRAIGHT FROM THE WEB :DD

THE RESULTS!!!!!!!! :(

results in my 1st prelims???

LAHAT BAGSAK PORKE SA SOCIAL STUDIESSSSSS!!!!!!!!!..... nagreview naman ako aa :(( baka siguro hindi ako fit for rshs for region 3 :'(

BULAGA :DD

grabe antagal ko na hindi nakapag post sa blog :)) haha kinabahan ako at wala akong assignment sa ict!!! xD pero nahimasmasan naman ako dahil sa wednesday pa yun salamat po SIR MIGUEL ESPORAS :DD

LAST FRIDAY NIGHT :))

matagal tagal na rin akong hindi nagpopost sa blog ko aa haha puro assignments!! :)) okay lang yun....naalala ko tuloy noong aquaintance party namin hahahaha xD..pareho kami ni kiana canete na sumakay sa taxi..may mga ibang year na nagkwento sa amin kung gano kasaya ang aquaintance party :)) lalo tuloy kaming naexcite...ang bigat ng dala kong carbonara!!! pero masarap naman daw :)) haaaay...nalala ko tuloy noong hindi ako nakakain dahil ako pala ang mr. freshie ng sapphire kasama si denisse GRABEEEEE NAGUTOM TALAGA AKO NUN!!!! xD hahaha tinulungan pa ako ni kuya BILOG nun e haha tsaka ni ERICKA haha luhod luhod para makahingi.. ANG BAIT NI MAM WELAAAAAAAAA!!!!!!!!!!!!!! nagbigay ba naman hahaha xD pero hindi ako nanalo sayang :( okaylang yun :) para rin sa ssg funds yun :)) ... tapos punta punta kami sa madidilim na lugar sa rs!!! NAG GHOST HANTING BA NAMAN!! xD haha noong nasa court kami may nakita kaming kumikislap na ilaw e haha TAKBOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO PAPUNTANG RUM!!!! :)) yun pala mga malalakas lang mantrip yung mga yun! haha kala pa nga ng iba alitaptap e xD!! next time na lang ulit :) sobrang saya e haha tumatak talaga yun sa isip ko!!! dun pala sa gymnasium ang saya nakakahilo ngalang yung pablink blink na ilaw haha PARTY PARTY!!!! xD ang saya grabeeee!!!! nahilo ako dun sa kakatalon!!! woooh! :)

KAKATAPOS LANG MAG AYOS NG BLOG :))

FAMOUS ENTREPRENEURS!!!!!!!!!!!! PART T2O!!! (SORI PO NAGKAMALI NUNG UHA ^^)

The late Francis Magalona and his clothing company named Francis Magalona Clothing Company (FFMC):

Socorro Ramos and her famous bookstore she managed, National Bookstore:

Henry Sy created S.M. out of his small shoe business:

FAMOUS ENTREPRENEURS

Henry Sy-Founder of SM Department Store

Tony Tan Caktiong-Founder of Jollibee Food Corps.

Socorro Ramos-Founder of National Bookstore

wahahahaha

CAN YOU APPLY IT NOW?

Assignment # 5
page 20:

IDENTIFY THE ENTREPRENEURIAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT HELPED CARLA SUCCEED IN HER BUSINESS:

Desire for Immediate Feedback
Creativity
Self-Control
Self-Confidence
Desire for Responsibility
High Energy Level
Courage
Well-Defined Values
Strong Desire to Archieve
Commitment to Work

di biro yung mga tinype ko a... sakit na ng kamay ko (-_-")

Can You Understand?

1. (a.)Evaluate the different entrepreneurial characteristics under PECs. (b.)How does applying similar characteristics helps us succeed in other areas of life? (c.)Explain your answer by giving examples.

2. Explain how having Personal Entrepreneurial Compentencies can help you become a successful entrepreneur.

ANSWERS: (ang hirap xD)

1. (a.)Characteristics/qualities of a successful entrepreneur

Qualities or Personal Entrepreneurial Characteristics (PEC) of successful entrepreneurs refer to the desired traits, which enable an entrepreneur to do what is expected of him/her and succeed in business. It is the combination of these characteristics that is required to enable any one to perform effectively as an entrepreneur. It is possible for people to develop these characteristics and succeed in their careers as entrepreneurs. Successful entrepreneurs have common characteristics, which are divided into three clusters namely achievement, planning and power.

1. Achievement Cluster

Opportunity seeking

This refers to the quality that enables the entrepreneur to see and act upon new business opportunities even in situations where other people see nothing but problems/hopelessness only. It also encourages him/her to seize unusual opportunities for obtaining the necessary resources such as financing, equipment, land, workspace, technical assistance, etc, which will enable him/her to implement his/her business ideas.

Commitment to the work contract

This is the ability to accept final responsibility for completing a job for the customers. Customers expect entrepreneurs to perform and honour their commitments. It follows therefore that the entrepreneur should do everything possible to ensure that he/she fulfils the commitment with his/her customers. It means joining the workers to work with them to ensure that contractual commitments are fulfilled, the entrepreneur will do it.

Persistence

This is the quality, which enables the entrepreneurs to develop determination to have a thorough job done at any cost in terms of personal sacrifice. By doing this, the entrepreneur remains working towards the achievement of his/her set goals.

Risk taking

Entrepreneurs are people who prefer taking moderate risks. Before they commit themselves and their resources, they assess the risks that are associated with a business opportunity that they have selected, and their ability to manage them, the benefits that they will realise and the challenges that they will face from the venture to be undertaken.

Entrepreneurs can earn profits as a result of taking risks and the higher the risks, the higher the profits. However, entrepreneurs will always prefer to take on those risks that they can manage.

Demand for efficiency and quality

This is the quality that enables an entrepreneur to do things that meet or surpass existing standards of excellence or improve on performance by striving to do things faster, better and cheaply. By doing this, the entrepreneur remains ahead of others, makes more profits and retains a growing market share.

2. Planning Cluster

The planning cluster is made up of the following characteristics:

Goal setting

This refers to the ability of an entrepreneur to set clear and specific goals and objectives. These goals and objectives are normally high and challenging but at the same time, realistic and can be attained, given the resources that one has got at his/her disposal.

Information seeking

This is having the urge to look for the required information in order to make an informed decision, for example, selecting, starting and successfully managing the desired business. This calls for the concerned person to personally seek and obtain information regarding customers, suppliers, competitors as well as any other relevant information that is required to enable the entrepreneur make decisions and improve knowledge on his/her business.

Systematic planning and monitoring

This is the ability to develop plans that will be used in monitoring and evaluating the progress of the business. This helps the entrepreneur to carefully monitor his/her business’ actual performance against desired performance and turn to other alternatives whenever the need arises; so as to achieve his/her set goals.

3. Power Cluster

Persuasion and networking

This is the ability to link, convince and influence other individuals, agencies and other groups in order to maintain business contacts at a high level. This will help or work for the cause of the business in a positive manner to accomplish own objectives.

Self-confidence

This refers to having a strong belief or confidence in oneself and the ability to complete a difficult task or meet a challenge.

(b.) Applying this characteristic/s to being an entrepreneur can be succeeding because one person can have a successful life if he/she uses it in the right way offering people the services he/she can support so that he/she can support himself/herself or his/her families

(c.) Vigilance for opportunities:
Paolo and his classmates are required to do alot of paperworks that is needed to be typewritten.Because Paolo has a computer, he can offer his classmates to rent his computer for a fee

Commitment to work contract:
Paolo sometimes finds it hardly to finish because he has some paperworks to, but Paolo does his best so he skips his leisure time finishing the paperworks that his classmates entrusted to him

Persistence:
Because he is swamped with typing jobs, Paolo sometimes mixed up his classmates paperworks but instead of quitting, he does all of this things from the start

Willingness to take risks:
After all the paperworks he have done, Paolo saves enough money so he manages to buy a 2nd computer

Demand for efficiency and quality:
Paolo practices accurate typing and improves his speed. He does this to make sure he is able to come up with the best results at the fastest time possible

Goal setting:
Soon, many of Paolo's classmates frequent visit his house to take turns renting his computers. He then resolved to use all his profits to buy two more secondhand computers in the next 2 months

Information seeking:
Paolo's classmates started asking to apply internet connection so they won't have to rent outside to do their research. So Paolo inquires to the best os the best internet service provider and the most ideal package

Systematic planning and monitoring:
Having acquired two or more computers, he carefully planned on the additional software to install in the units so the units will not slow down. He also installed a program that automatically records computer use

Persuasion and Networking:
After installing the necessary applications, he convinced his classmates that they will have access to all the software that they need to do their assignments. He was also able to convince them to pass the news around about his superior services

Self confidence (yey! last na!!! xD) :
Although there are bigger computer shops around, Paolo's classmates still refer to use his comnputers. Tis is because he shows total belief in the advantages of his services over the more expensive and impersonal shops.. xD

2. Because you can use this characteristics to help you become a successful entrepreneur so that you can have a successfull bussiness..


SOURCE: BOOK xD

I LOVE IT :)

pose naman dyan xD

Explain what Personal Entrepreneural Competencies (PEC's) are. List down the different PEC's.

Achievement Cluster
I. Opportunity Seeking and Initiative
Does things before asked or forced to by events
Acts to extend the business into new areas, products or services
Seizes unusual opportunities to start a new business, obtain financing,
equipment, land work space or assistance
II. Risk Taking
Deliberately calculates risks and evaluates alternatives
Takes action to reduce risks or control outcomes
Places self in situations involving a challenge or moderate risk
III. Demand for Efficiency and Quality
Finds ways to do things better, faster, or cheaper
Acts to do things that meet or exceed standards of excellence
Develops or uses procedures to ensure work is completed on time or that
work meets agreed upon standards of quality
IV. Persistence
Takes action in the face of a significant obstacle
Takes repeated actions or switches to an alternative strategy to meet a
challenge or overcome an obstacle
Takes personal responsibility for the performance necessary to achieve
goals and objectives
V. Commitment to the Work Contract
Makes a personal sacrifice or expends extraordinary effort to complete a
job
Pitches in with workers or in their place to get a job done
Strives to keep customers satisfied and places long term good will over
short term gain
Planning Cluster
VI. Information Seeking
Personally seeks information from clients, suppliers or competitors
Does personal research on how to provide a product or service
Consults experts for business or technical advice
VII Goal setting
Sets goals and objectives that are personally meaningful and challenging
Articulates clear and specific long range goals
Sets measurable short term objectives
VIII. Systematic Planning and Monitoring
Plans by breaking large tasks down into time-constrained sub-tasks
Revises plans in light of feedback on performance or changing
circumstances
Keeps financial records and uses them to make business decisions
Power Cluster
IX. Persuasion and Networking
Uses deliberate strategies to influence or persuade others
Uses key people as agents to accomplish own objectives
Acts to develop and maintain business contracts
X. Independence and self-confidence
Seeks autonomy from the rules or control of others
Sticks with own judgement in the face of opposition or early lack of
success
Expresses confidence in own ability to complete a difficult task or meet a
challenge

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_personal_entrepreneurial_competencies_or_PEC's#ixzz1Oy15lDHA

Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs)
For reference, I'm posting here the ten Personal Entrepreneurial Competencies (PECs) which seems to be used in the Business Technology/Entrepreneurship programs of the Technology and Livelihood Education (T.L.E.) subject.

The original research by McClelland and McBer identified 14 PECs; the EMPRETEC [a UN program for small businesses; from the Spanish words emprendedores (entrepreneurs) and tecnología (technology)] clustered these into just 10:

Achievement Cluster
I. Opportunity Seeking and Initiative
* Does things before asked or forced to by events
* Acts to extend the business into new areas, products or services
* Seizes unusual opportunities to start a new business, obtain financing, equipment, land work space or assistance

II. Risk Taking
* Deliberately calculates risks and evaluates alternatives
* Takes action to reduce risks or control outcomes
* Places self in situations involving a challenge or moderate risk

III. Demand for Efficiency and Quality
* Finds ways to do things better, faster, or cheaper
* Acts to do things that meet or exceed standards of excellence
* Develops or uses procedures to ensure work is completed on time or that work meets agreed upon standards of quality

IV. Persistence
* Takes action in the face of a significant obstacle
* Takes repeated actions or switches to an alternative strategy to meet a challenge or overcome an obstacle
* Takes personal responsibility for the performance necessary to achieve goals and objectives

V. Commitment to the Work Contract
* Makes a personal sacrifice or expends extraordinary effort to complete a job
* Pitches in with workers or in their place to get a job done
* Strives to keep customers satisfied and places long term good will over short term gain

Planning Cluster
VI. Information Seeking
* Personally seeks information from clients, suppliers or competitors
* Does personal research on how to provide a product or service
* Consults experts for business or technical advice

VII. Goal setting
* Sets goals and objectives that are personally meaningful and challenging
* Articulates clear and specific long range goals
* Sets measurable short term objectives

VIII. Systematic Planning and Monitoring
* Plans by breaking large tasks down into time-constrained sub-tasks
* Revises plans in light of feedback on performance or changing circumstances
* Keeps financial records and uses them to make business decisions

Power Cluster
IX. Persuasion and Networking
* Uses deliberate strategies to influence or persuade others
* Uses key people as agents to accomplish own objectives
* Acts to develop and maintain business contracts

X. Independence and self-confidence
* Seeks autonomy from the rules or control of others
* Sticks with own judgement in the face of opposition or early lack of success
* Expresses confidence in own ability to complete a difficult task or meet a challenge


source:http://eduphil.org/forum/personal-entrepreneurial-competencies-pecs-t-1802.html

inventions that were invented due to necessity part 2 :))

Since the beginning of human life, enormous changes around us have taken us to a path of scientific progress, which in turn has benefited mankind in a number of ways. In every era, man has innovated a lot of things in order to cater to his rising needs.

Imagine life in the Stone Age! The primitive ways of living just comprised man's activities revolving around the search for food and shelter. They hunted animals for food and used caves as shelters, and animal skin and leaves to cover their bodies. Fire was discovered accidentally when two pieces of rock rubbed against each other, but since then people started using it for their protection and heating and cooking purposes.

Undoubtedly, these seem meaningless to us today, but consider life without these discoveries and inventions. Would you be able to enjoy the same quality of life without them? But the fact is that the emergence of necessities led man to explore further.

As time passed, man realized other needs arising around him. After catering to his fundamental needs of food and shelter, man felt the need for acquiring goods, which he himself could not produce. This led to the idea of the barter system under which goods were exchanged without the use of money, but a constraint to this mechanism was his limited movement. How far could a man travel, loaded with tons of wheat just for the sake of some kilos of meat? Then man came up with the idea of the wheel.

The wheel is undoubtedly one of the earliest and most important mechanical inventions. The invention of wheel served as a milestone in the history of science because it was a prerequisite for many other inventions. It introduced the idea of transportation network without which economy could never have developed. Without it there would be no movement, no cars, no trains, and no aeroplanes. It shrunk distances and provided man with an opportunity to explore the world.

The Chinese invented the wheelbarrow, which made use of lever action.

The first non-transport utilization of the wheel came in the Bronze Age with the invention of the Potters' wheel, first used in Mesopotamia in 3500BC. Pottery began to be shaped on a slow wheel in ancient Egypt in approximately 3000BC and on a fast wheel several centuries later.

However, as communication was channelized, rising horizons of the world led to the imperative need to express oneself. As the need arose, man seized the use of pictures and paintings for self-expression, which later developed the concept of writing. Initially, the ancient Romans and Egyptians used different signs and marks to symbolize different meanings. Later the Phoenicians invented the Alphabet in 1600BC and then numerals were invented in India in 300BC. Now people were able to communicate which one another when they moved from one place to another. But now the way of expression needed a medium to transfer. Verbal communications led to the creation of Languages.

With the need for writing evolved the need for a substance to write on. Rocks, parchments and leaves were initially used but they were not satisfactory. With the passage of time paper was first invented in China and later mushroomed in the rest of the world.

Man man oeuvres and hence his advancements continued. His necessities were growing rapidly in respect of such innovations. The wheel of time changed weeks into months and months into years. Now man was able to produce in massive quantities. As he entered the 17th century the massive inventions and innovations directed his entire life to a different way.

First the emergence of the steam engine provided a landmark in the Industrial Revolution of Europe. The first steam engine was built by an engineer, Thomas Newcomen in 1705 to improve the pumping equipment used to eliminate seepage in tin and copper mines. He put steam in the cylinder and then condensed it with a spray of cold water. The vacuum created allowed atmospheric pressure to push the piston down.

Later the same idea was developed even further to advance the operations of the steam engine. But now the search was for cheap transmission of energy because how far could man rely on manual conducts. It was not until 1831 when Michael Faraday demonstrated how electricity could be produced and that in 1873 led to the development of a dynamo capable of prolonged operation. Electricity was a major factor in the phenomenally rapid industrialization of the world in the 18th and 19th century. Thus the Industrial Revolution was attributed to the emergence of a number of simultaneous factors, which included steam engine, electricity and cheap steel, which further accelerated the process of progress.

It was a propitious time to introduce novel ideas. The fundamental principle used in the steam engine and electricity paved the way for proceedings in scientific block. To bolster communication, the telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. In 1886 a German, Gotlieb Diameter built the first-petrol driven vehicle which eased man's movement in the form of less time and more comfort. The first TV broadcast appeared on the world horizon at the Alexander Palace, London, in 1936 which further accelerated the process of exchanging thoughts and ideas.

The above great scientific inventions were worth mentioning not just to make you acquainted with such innovations but also to interpret the fact that how man moulded himself in accordance with his needs. As the need arose, man came up with new ideas, new thoughts and forcefully pushed his mind to run on that particular line of action.

Even in the modern era, man has been found to observe the same behavioral patterns. Some years ago TB and cancer were regarded as incurable diseases, man conducted massive research on them and finally came up with effective solutions.

Until the World Wars I and II, the world never experienced any threats to its peace and harmony. However after these two events, the less developed countries were endangered by the more technologically advanced countries regarding their defence. This led to the emergence of United Nations Organization, which was developed to promote stabilized political, economical and social conditions conducive to peace.

Similarly, the computer was required to handle process and programmed the data collected in different forms. The invention of the Internet was eventually an outcome of the need to shrink distances and increase rapid connectivity.

Today most countries are facing the dilemma of energy crisis. Historically fossil fuels have been the main source of energy supply and have served human energy needs for thousands of years. But now their depletion has stressed man to use some alternative means to meet growing energy demands. The use of hydrogen has been regarded as the optimum future fuel as it is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe.

Whether it is the old age or modern era, man has been found too efficient to satisfy his needs and has set numerous examples of it. No matter whether it was a political issue, scientific concern or even day-to-day chores of life man has reacted in a flexible mood to create a way for himself whenever he realized his needs. Unsurprisingly he has been successful in achieving an alternative source for his need each time as wherever there is a will there is a way.

Syeda Mahwish Fatima Naqvi writes Articles, Features, Columns in Different newspapers and Magazines, working as a content writer.

source:

inventions that were invented due to NECESSITY :D